Immunization
Immunity to a foreign antigen (e. g., a pathogen or toxin) can be provided by passive transfer or active induction. In the former case, antibodies against the foreign protein pathogen are injected into an individual, with the result that short-term protection is provided. In the latter case, injection of a harmless (innocuous) form of the pathogen, a component of the pathogen, or a modified form of the toxin (i. e., a toxoid) stimulates the individual's immune system, conferring long-term protection.
Active immunity can be induced, provided an individual's immune system is competent, by using an appropriate antigen to stimulate the immune system. For example, immunization (vaccination) with an innocuous or attenuated form of the pathogen in this manner results in an immediate immune response, as well as immunological "memory", thus conferring long-term protection as well. In general, vaccines include inactivated, nonpathogenic or attenuated forms of a pathogen or infectious agent, which include antigenic determinants of the pathogen and thus elicit an immune response. Similarly, toxins, which are antigenic substances produced by microorganisms, plants and animals, can be converted to toxoids; that is, they can be modified to destroy their toxic properties but retain their antigenicity and, as a result, their ability to stimulate production of antitoxin antibodies and produce active immunity. Such toxoids can be used for vaccines against the toxin.
In both cases--that involving stimulation of an immune response by administration of an altered form of an infectious pathogen and that involving administration of a toxoid--presently-available procedures are generally effective, but side effects and deaths resulting from the vaccination are known to occur.
Safer vaccines are now being developed through application of better knowledge of the antigenic determinants of a pathogen and of genetic engineering/recombinant DNA techniques. For example, it is possible to make a polypeptide (e. g. by chemical synthesis or expression of DNA encoding the polypeptide of interest) which is a component (e. g., an antigenic determinant) of a protein antigen known to elicit an immune response. Administration of the polypeptide to a host is followed by an immune response by the host to the antigenic determinant. Use of such a polypeptide is not accompanied by the risk of infection which accompanies use of live or attenuated vaccines.
Immunization (administration of a vaccine) is a common and widespread procedure and the vaccine used can be essentially "any preparation intended for active immunological prophylaxis", including preparations of killed microbes of virulent strains, living microbes of attenuated strains, and microbial, fungal, plant, protozoal or metazoan derivatives or products. Stedman's Illustrated Medical Dictionary (24th edition), Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, p. 1526 (1982). In many cases, vaccines must be administered more than once in order to induce effective protection; for example, known anti-toxin vaccines must be given in multiple doses.
Childhood vaccination is commonplace and generally successful in developed countries, where there is ready access to health services and multiple immunizations (e.g. immunization against multiple pathogens and serial or multiple immunizations against a single pathogen) are possible. In the developing world, vaccination is far less common and far more problematic. For example, only about 20 percent of the 100 million children born in the developing world each year are vaccinated against diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, measles, poliomyelitis and tuberculosis. It is estimated that each year, 5 million children in the developing world die and another 5 million children are physically or mentally disabled by these diseases, which could be prevented if adequate immunization were possible. Availability of effective vaccines which can confer long-term immunity with a single administration would, of course, be valuable in both developed and developing countries.
Vaccination of adults is also helpful in preventing many diseases in adults and, as is the case with children, in developing countries may prove to be difficult to carry out, particularly if multiple immunizations are necessary. Diseases such as leprosy, malaria, tuberculosis, and poliomyelitis, among others, have a high incidence among adults in Africa, Asia and Latin America and are the causes of thousands of deaths annually.
Much effort has been expended in developing vaccines against major diseases and, recently, consideration has been given to recombinant vaccine vehicles (e. g., genetically engineered viruses) to express foreign genes. For example, recombinant vaccinia virus, in which viral antigens are inserted into vaccinia virus--has been developed. For example, hepatitis B genes, influenza virus genes or DNA encoding rabies virus antigen have been spliced into vaccinia virus DNA in efforts to make vaccines. Panicali, D. et. al., Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 80: 5364-5368 (1983); Orr, T., Genetic Engineering News, p. 17, (March 1985); Paoletti, E. and D. Panicali, U.S. Pat. No. 4,603,112.
It is widely agreed, however, that such recombinant vaccinia virus would have at least two important drawbacks as a vaccine. First, there is a significant mortality and morbidity (1:100,000) associated with vaccinia virus, which is untreatable. Second, vaccination with recombinant vaccinia of individuals previously exposed to vaccinia virus has often failed to produce satisfactory immunization levels. Fenner, F., New Approaches to Vaccine Development, R. Bell and G. Torrigiani (ed.), Schwabe & Co., p. 187 (1984).
To date, vaccines have been developed which, although effective in many instances in inducing immunity against a given pathogen, must be administered more than once and may be unable to provide protection, on a long-term basis, against a pathogen. In addition, in many cases (e. g., leprosy, malaria, etc.), an effective vaccine has yet to be developed.
Mycobacteria
Mycobacteria represent major pathogens of man and animals. For example, tuberculosis is generally caused in humans by Mycobacterium (M.) tuberculosis and in cattle by Mycobacterium (M.) bovis (which can be transmitted to humans and other animals, in whom it causes tuberculosis). Tuberculosis remains widespread and is an important public health problem, particularly in developing countries. It is estimated that there are approximately 10 million cases of tuberculosis worldwide, with an annual mortality of 3 million. Joint International Union Against Tuberculosis and World Health Organization Study Group, Tubercle, 63:157-169 (1982).
Leprosy, which is caused by M. leprae, afflicts over 10 million people, primarily in developing countries. Bloom, B. R. and T. Godal, Review of Infectious Diseases, 5:657-679 (1984). M. tuberculosis and mycobacteria of the avium-intracellulare-scrofulaceum (MAIS) group represent major opportunistic pathogens of patients with acquired immunodeficiency disease (AIDS). Centers for Disease Control, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 34:774 (1986). M. pseudotuberculosis is a major pathogen of cattle.
On the other hand, Bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG), an avirulent strain of M. bovis, is the most widely used human vaccine in the world and has been used as a live vaccine for more than 50 years. In the past 35 years, it has been administered to over 2.5 billion people, with remarkably few adverse effects (e. g., estimated mortality of 60/billion). BCG has been found in numerous studies to have protective efficacy against tuberculosis. Recently, however, it was found not to be effective in preventing pulmonary tuberculosis in Southern India. Tuberculosis Prevention Trial, Madras, Indian Journal of Medical Research, 72 (suppl.): 1-74 (1980).
Thus, although there are numerous vaccines available, including BCG, many are limited in value because they induce a limited immune response, must be given in multiple doses and/or have adverse side effects. In other cases (e. g., leprosy, malaria), a vaccine is simply unavailable. It would be of great value if a vaccine against a pathogen or pathogens of concern were available which provided long-term stimulation of immunity in recipients sufficient to provide protection against the pathogen(s) without adverse effects.